Electrostatic force caused by electrical potential gradient - cations like protons H tend to diffuse down the electrical potential, anions in the opposite direction.

The electrical gradient is a consequence of the charge separation across the membrane (when the protons H move without a counterion, such as chloride Cl).

Because in case of ions electrical gradient in addition to the concentration difference affects spontaneous movement acros the membrane.

With Ag-AgCl electrodes, ions react with it to produce electrical gradients at the interface, creating a voltage change with respect to time.

Increasing the concentration or valence of the counterions compresses the double layer and increases the electrical potential gradient.

A semi-conducting glaze may be used to assist in equalizing the electrical potential gradient along the length of the bushing.

There is energy stored in the potassium ion concentration gradient that can be converted into an electrical gradient when potassium (K) ions move out of the cell.

The electrical and concentration gradient drives more reabsorption of Na, as well as other cations such as magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca).

When a voltage is applied to the device, the electrical gradient will be largest across the thin middle layer.

An electrical gradient, heat recaptured, physical force?