However, these studies used a different experimental design that does not demonstrate a causal effect.

However, we cannot even be sure that it has got the causal effects absolutely right.

The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other.

From this table we only know the causal effect on Joe.

Suppose that we want to determine the causal effect of the drug on Joe.

In this example, we would have to determine three different causal effects.

This means that they have the same average causal effect.

Did income have a direct or causal effect on happiness?

The impact evaluation determines the causal effects of the program.

"The cutting edge now is to find out if this association has any causal effect."